Salud Humana: Revista Académica Investigativa
ISSN: 2631-2492
DOI: 10.54753/rsh.v1i1.2463
Página web: https://revistas.unl.edu.ec/index.php/saludh
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-SinDerivadas 4.0. 87
| Artículo de Investigación
Experiencias Infantiles Adversas y su asociación con el comportamiento delictivo en
Adultos: Una revisión sistemática
Omayck Valarezo-Bravo1,2 ✉, Melissa Verduga-Toala3, Jorge Pérez-Rodríguez4, Cecilia Ruíz-Toledo4, Paul Palacios-
Sotomayor4, Rodrigo Ríos-Córdova5, Doménica Burneo-Álvarez5
1School of Psychology, Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile.
2Associate researcher at Universidad Nacional de Loja, Loja, Ecuador.
3Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador.
4University Welfare Unit at Universidad Nacional de Loja, Loja, Ecuador
5School of Psychology, Universidad Internacional del Ecuador sede Loja, Loja, Ecuador
Autor para correspondencia: Omayck Valarezo-Bravo E-mail: omayck.valarezo@ce.ucn.cl
| RESUMEN
Este estudio explora el impacto de las Experiencias Adversas en la Infancia (ACEs) sobre las conductas delictivas en la edad adulta,
sintetizando los hallazgos más relevantes en este campo. Se realizó una revisión sistemática siguiendo las directrices PRISMA, y la
calidad metodológica de los estudios empíricos incluidos se evaluó mediante la Herramienta de Evaluación de Métodos Mixtos
(MMAT). La revisión identificó instrumentos clave para medir las ACE en adultos, siendo el cuestionario de Experiencias Adversas
en la Infancia el más utilizado (59,26%). Se descubrió que las ACEs tenían fuertes asociaciones con varias formas de
comportamiento delictivo, incluido el inicio precoz de la delincuencia, los actos delictivos autodeclarados, los delitos sexuales y
los trastornos de personalidad del clúster B. Además, las ACE estaban relacionadas con los delincuentes juveniles, la violencia de
pareja en la edad adulta, el TEPT, el consumo de opiáceos ilícitos y las detenciones por agresión sexual. También mostraron
conexiones significativas con problemas de salud mental, violencia doméstica y un mayor riesgo de abuso de sustancias y actividad
delictiva. Reconocer los efectos a largo plazo de las ACEs es esencial para informar las políticas públicas destinadas a reducir la
delincuencia y mejorar la salud mental de los adultos. Se discuten las implicaciones de estos hallazgos.
| PALABRAS CLAVE
Conducta delictiva; adulto; delincuente; reincidencia.
| ABSTRACT
This study explores the impact of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) on delinquent behaviors in adulthood, synthesizing the
most relevant findings in the field. A systematic review was conducted following PRISMA guidelines, and the methodological
quality of the included empirical studies was assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT). The review identified key
instruments for measuring ACEs in adults, with the Adverse Childhood Experiences questionnaire being the most commonly used
(59.26%). ACEs were found to have strong associations with various forms of criminal behavior, including early onset of
delinquency, self-reported criminal acts, sexual offenses, and Cluster B personality disorders. Additionally, ACEs were linked to
young offenders, intimate partner violence in adulthood, PTSD, illicit opioid use, and arrests for sexual assault. They also showed
significant connections with mental health issues, domestic violence, and an increased risk of substance abuse and criminal activity.
Recognizing the long-term effects of ACEs is essential for informing public policies aimed at reducing delinquency and improving
adult mental health. The implications of these findings are discussed.
| KEYWORDS:
Criminal behavior; adult; offender; recidivism.
Experiencias Infantiles Adversas y su asociación con el comportamiento delictivo en Adultos: Una revisión sistemática
88
ACEPTADO: Abril 2025 PUBLICADO: Julio 2025 DOI: 10.54753/rsh.v1i1.2463
1. Introduction
Criminal actions committed by adults are explained through criminal behavior, encompassing actions ranging from minor
infractions to serious crimes. Various influences, including biological, psychological, and socioenvironmental factors, contribute to
the genesis of this conduct. The impact of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) emerges as a prominent explanatory theory,
significantly affecting mental and physical health (Felitti et al., 1998; Trivedi et al., 2021). Risk factors such as physical, emotional,
or sexual abuse, neglect, and family dysfunction are indicators of psychopathology and a poorer prognosis (Lipsky et al., 2022;
Valarezo-Bravo et al., 2020). Additionally, factors like physical and psychological abuse, parental separation, family mental illness,
family member incarceration, and substance use by family members contribute to the risk (Rehkopf et al., 2016; Vega-Arce &
Núñez-Ulloa, 2017).
ACEs significantly impact socioemotional and behavioral functioning, correlating with psychopathological disorders, criminal
offenses, and recidivism (Vallejos & Cesoni, 2020). Jackson et al. (2022) indicate a significant increase in the probability of police
arrests with the accumulation of ACEs between ages 5 and 7, reaching 100% when experiencing 3 or more ACEs (Babad et al.,
2022). Testa et al. (2022) report that having 4 or more ACEs is associated with various forms of justice system involvement in early
to mid-adulthood, including arrests, a higher number of arrests, adult incarceration, and repeat incarcerations.
Criminals, in their childhood, have experienced child physical abuse, leading to higher rates of self-reported total crimes, violent
crimes, and property damage (Baglivio et al., 2014; Teague et al., 2008). Understanding how ACEs can lead to criminal behaviors is
of utmost importance for the implementation of public policies and mental health promotion and prevention plans. Therefore, the
objective of this review was to describe research detailing the most relevant findings of ACEs and their incidence in delinquent
behaviors in adults.
2. Materials y Methods
The current research corresponds to a qualitative systematic review following the PRISMA guidelines (Moher et al., 2009; Page et
al., 2021). This systematic review analyzed empirical articles published between 2018 and 2022 in major databases such as Web of
Science, Scopus, and PubMed, in both English and Spanish.
Search Strategy
The systematic review was conducted following the recommendations and criteria outlined in the PRISMA statement. Specifically,
this investigation focused on studies conducted in English and Spanish that included the following keywords: a. ("advers* child*
experienc*"), AND ("crimin* behav*" OR "offender"), AND ("emerging adult*" OR "Young"). The keywords were searched in the
title, abstract, and keywords. The search strategy for article selection is illustrated in the flow diagram (Figure 1).
Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Empirical articles examining the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and criminal behavior in adults were included.
The search encompassed only full-text articles published between 2018 and 2022, available in English or Spanish. Exclusion criteria
involved qualitative research, review articles, clinical cases, case studies, dissertations, and conference abstracts. Additionally,
studies written in languages other than English or Spanish were excluded.
Study selection process
A staged selection process was undertaken (see Figure 1), wherein, initially, all articles gathered from the specified scientific
databases (n = 440), Web of Science (148), Scopus (146), and PubMed (146), were compiled. Secondly, duplicate articles were
removed (n = 165). Thirdly, titles, abstracts, conducted instruments, and keywords were reviewed, eliminating those not meeting
inclusion criteria (n = 192). Finally, full-text empirical studies were examined, eliminating theoretical or instrumental studies and
those not focusing on adverse childhood experiences related to criminal behavior in emerging adults.
Valarezo- Bravo et al.
89
Figure 1. Search strategy following the PRISMA diagram.
Results synthesis
Upon completion of the selection process (n = 27), a synthesis of results was conducted to compare different studies. This involved
extracting eight key pieces of information: (a) the author or authors of the article, (b) the year of publication, (c) the sample or
samples studied, (d) the research design, (e) instruments used for identity fusion measurement, (f) and the primary results or
findings of each article.
Data extraction
Articles included in the final sample underwent a thorough review through a descriptive analysis, utilizing custom forms for data
extraction (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005). The authors independently assessed the quality of the studies. Methodological quality
assessment of the articles in the reviewed empirical studies was conducted using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) (Hong
et al., 2019; Pluye et al., 2011). The scoring varies based on the study type, assigning points according to specific quality criteria for
each design (quantitative, qualitative, and mixed). Each criterion is evaluated as "Yes" (meets standards), "No" (does not meet), or
"Cannot be determined." The total score is calculated based on the proportion of criteria met relative to the total possible. For
instance, if a study fulfills 3 out of 4 criteria, its score would be 75%. By employing the MMAT tool, we were able to rigorously
assess the methodological quality of the selected studies and conduct bias control in the review process.
Experiencias Infantiles Adversas y su asociación con el comportamiento delictivo en Adultos: Una revisión sistemática
90
3. Results
Figure 2 provides an overview of the research related to the study topic. Furthermore, upon examining Table 1, it is noteworthy
that the majority of investigations focused on Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and criminal behavior adopted a retrospective
methodology (40.74%). In second place are cross-sectional studies (33.33%), followed by longitudinal studies (14.81%). Finally,
case-control studies, prospective studies, and randomized controlled trials are each represented at 3.70%. Similarly, Figure 2
identifies that the majority of research conducted on this topic has taken place in the United States (55.56%), followed by Canada,
the Netherlands, and Germany, each with 7.41%.
Figure 2. Percentage of research conducted on ACEs and criminal behavior in the adult population
Author and year
Country
Desing
Sample
Reincidence
Measure
Objective
Basto-Pereira et
al. (2022)
Cross-
national
Cross-
sectional
3797 young adults
N/D
ACE-Q
This study examined the relationship between ACEs and
criminal behaviors in young adults living in 10 countries
located across five continents, after accounting for sex,
age, and cross-national differences
Beckley et al.
(2018)
United
Kingdom
Longitudinal
2232 monozygotic
and dizygotic twin
pairs
N/D
ACEs
Drawing from developmental literature, we additionally
tested the effect of an accumulation of adverse childhood
experiences (ACEs)
Carr et al. (2020)
Denmark
Retrospective
28956 individuals
with dual-harm
history
N/D
ACEs
We aimed to examine adversities experienced between
birth and age 15 years among adolescents and young
adults with histories of self-harm and violent criminality,
with a specific focus on dual harm.
Craig & Zettler
(2021)
USA
Retrospective
11788
indeterminate-
sentenced juvenile
offenders
incarcerated
Approximately thirty
percent (30.3%) were
rearrested for any violent
offense within the three
years following release.
ACEs
The current study seeks to address this gap by examining
the impact of ACE exposure on violent recidivism among a
sample of confined juvenile delinquents.
Dalsklev et al.
(2019)
Ireland
Retrospective
100 offenders
N/D
CTQ
The aim of the current study was to investigate whether
childhood trauma among offenders who have served a life
sentence.
DeLisi et al. (2018)
USA
Retrospective
863
Adult-onset
offending
N/D
ACEs
This study examined this controversial subgroup of
offenders using self-reported and official data from a total
population of federal correctional clients.
DeLisi et al.
(2019a)
USA
Retrospective
863 offenders
N/D
ACEs
The current study examined this “new” adverse childhood
experience and its association with antisociality
DeLisi et al.
(2019b)
USA
Retrospective
863 federal
correctional
clients
N/D
ACEs
The current study examined antecedent background
factors spanning adverse childhood experiences and
childhood psycho- pathology among federal offenders
that had ASPD symptomatology or lifetime diagnostic
history for ASPD.
DeLisi et al. (2021)
USA
Longitudinal
216 federal
offenders
N/D
ACE-Q
Our research goal is to explore correlations and
classification accuracy of these new adverse childhood
experiences measures especially relative to the established
ACE Questionnaire.
DeLisi &
Beauregard
(2018)
Canada
Prospective
624 Adult male
sexual offenders
The majority (81.2%) of
the victims in their sexual
crimes were female, and
almost 31% of the
offenders were sexual
recidivists.
ACEs
Examine the associations between exposure to violence,
victimization, and total adverse childhood experiences on
sexual homicide
Drury et al. (2019)
USA
Retrospective
863 sexual
offending
N/D
ACEs
The current study tested the hypothesis that CSA is
associated with sexual offendin
Fox et al. (2021)
USA
Cross-
sectional
735 adults
incarcerated in the
jail
A high rate of recidivism
42%
ACEs
This study examines the latent heterogeneity in risk profiles
using risk factors prominent in early years and adulthood,
and whether risk profile severity changes across the early
and adult risk models.
Heirigs (2021)
USA
Cross-
sectional
326 incarcerated
males and females
N/D
CM
To investigate the relationship psychopathy and childhood
maltreatment have on homicidal ideation.
Humphrey & Van
Brunschot (2018)
Canada
Cross-
sectional
401 offenders
N/D
ACEs
The current study examines how cumulative adversity in
childhood is related to both frequency of offending and
criminal career length in adulthood.
Jankovic et al.
(2021)
Netherlands
Randomized
Controlled
Trial
50 patients
N/D
CTQ-SF
The current study was to investigate the association
between three clinical forms of abuse and two aspects of
neglect and HRV.
Jones et al. (2020)
USA
Retrospective
349 incarcerated
Mothers and their
Children
N/D
ACEs
The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationships
between ACEs, PTSD symptoms, and the perpetration of
the physical violence in the adult intimate relationships of
women prisoners.
Kahn et al. (2021)
USA
Cross-
sectional
317 adult males
who had
committed sexual
offenses
ACE scores were not
related to the risk of
sexual recidivism.
ACEs
To understand the frequency of ACEs in a sample of high-
risk civilly committed sexual offenders and compare this
rate with other samples.
Lansford et al.
(2021)
USA
Longitudinal
585 offenders
N/D
ELC
We hypothesized that early childhood physical abuse
would prospectively predict adult outcomes in education
and economic stability, physical health, mental health,
substance use, and criminal behavior.
Liu et al. (2021)
USA
Retrospective
1349 adult
offenders
For men, compared to
close family members
visited frequently, those
who visit relatives
occasionally had a 27%
higher risk of recidivism.
SCE
This study examines early adverse experiences and adult
pro-social bonds simultaneously using a mixed-gender
sample of serious adult offenders
Ramírez-Labbé et
al. (2022)
Chile
Cross-
sectional
200 general
population
N/D
ACE-IQ
It is expected that the greater the number of ACEs, the
greater the self-reported mental health problems will be
observed throughout life, a greater number of OH and/or
substance use problems, more criminal behavior, and more
domestic violence will be observed.
Reidy et al. (2021)
USA
Cross-
sectional
1451 general
population and
recruited from
prisons.
N/D
ACEs
The purpose is to illustrate how these seemingly simple
variations in measurement can alter analytic results and
interpretation, thereby impacting generalizations to the
broader population.
Schick et al.
(2020)
USA
Cross-
sectional
79 women who
had been in
prison
The fixed historical
variables used to predict
the risk of recidivism, such
as juvenile incarceration
and parental relationship,
accounted for this.
ACEs
We hypothesised that adverse childhood experiences
(ACEs) would be related to immutable risk measures
according to the LSI-R: SV, such as juvenile arrest history,
rather than more mutable factors, such as criminal
attitudes.
Siva et al. (2022)
India
Case-control
35 case
32 control
male recidivist
violent offender
Among the recidivist
violent offenders in this
study, the number of
incidents, longevity, or
the severities of the expo-
sure to individual ACEs
was significantly higher.
ACE- IQ
This study was done as a case–control method among
recidivist violent offenders and controls to examine the
effects of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) on violent
criminality.
Stinson et al.
(2021)
USA
Cross-
sectional
182 male and
female forensic
psychiatric
N/D
ACEs
This study examines prevalence, distribution, and
correlates of ACEs in 182 male and female forensic
psychiatric inpatients in secure care
Turner et al.
(2021)
Germany
Longitudinal
161 offenders
N/D
CTQ-SF
The present study aimed at evaluating the prevalence of
ACEs and mental health problems as well as their
association within a sample of male and female young
offenders.
Van Duin et al.
(2021)
Netherlands
Retrospective
692 multi-
problem young
adults were
recruited.
During the average 30-
month follow-up period,
37.8% of the participants
were convicted of any
new crime, either non-
violent and/or violent.
ACEs
This study examines the relationship between criminal
history and adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and how
they collectively predict (a) recidivism and (b) positive
social functioning.
Woehrle et al.
(2022)
Germany
Retrospective
239 offenders
N/D
CTQ
We examined the associations of psychopathy with both
maltreatment and aggression on a rather exploratory basis.
Valarezo- Bravo et al.
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Measuring Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) in adults
In this study, it has been identified that the primary measurement of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) has been carried out
using the following instruments: Adverse Childhood Experiences (59.26%), followed by the Adverse Childhood Experiences
Questionnaire and Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), each with 7.41%. Lastly, instruments such as the Adverse Childhood
Experiences International Questionnaire (ACE-IQ), Child Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form (CTQ-SF), Early Life Circumstances, Self-
reported Childhood Experiences, and the World Health Organization Adverse Childhood Experiences International Questionnaire
(ACE-IQ) each accounted for 3.70%.
Main findings of the research on adverse childhood experiences and criminal behavior
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) reveal significant associations with criminal behavior (Siva et al., 2022), the onset and self-
reported criminal behavior, sexual offenses, and Cluster B personality disorders (DeLisi et al., 2021; Jankovic et al., 2021).
Additionally, they impact young offenders (Turner et al., 2021); perpetration of violence in adult intimate partners (Jones et al.,
2020); post-traumatic stress disorder; illicit opioid use; and arrests for sexual assault (Reidy et al., 2021). Likewise, they are linked
to mental health problems, domestic violence, and a significantly higher risk of substance use and criminal behaviors (Ramírez-
Labbé et al., 2022).
Various forms of physical and sexual abuse in childhood are associated with diagnoses of conduct disorder and antisocial
personality disorder, as well as involvement in serious crimes (DeLisi et al., 2019b). They are also related to official charges for
rape/sexual abuse (DeLisi et al., 2019a; Woehrle et al., 2022), the need for special education services, grade repetitions, dependence
on government assistance, and clinical scores of externalizing or internalizing disorders. Moreover, these factors are linked to
criminal convictions in the last year (Lansford et al., 2021) and serve as predictors of aggression and criminality (Basto-Pereira et
al., 2022; Stinson et al., 2021).
Similarly, exposure to violence and victimization in childhood has been observed to increase the likelihood of committing sexual
homicide (DeLisi & Beauregard, 2018). Parental drug exposure is associated with various substance-related crimes and dependence
on cannabis, cocaine, methamphetamines, opioids, and alcohol (DeLisi et al., 2019a). Parental unemployment, hospitalization, and
violent criminality are associated with dual harm (self-harm and perpetrating violence) (Carr et al., 2020). Exposure to child abuse
is a significant predictor of homicidal ideation (Heirigs, 2021), aggressive behavior, and violent and sexual delinquency (Woehrle
et al., 2022). Additionally, it has been discovered that the environment, genes, and ACEs contribute to the victim-offender overlap;
in this regard, ACEs increase the odds of antisocial behavior (Beckley et al., 2018).
Regarding the onset of criminal behaviors and their relationship with ACEs, it has been observed that paternal abandonment and
physical abuse are negatively associated with an advanced onset of delinquency, while maternal emotional/verbal abandonment
and abuse tend toward a positive association with an advanced onset of delinquency (DeLisi et al., 2018). Likewise, not only has
crime that begins in adulthood (25-29 years) been evidenced, but also a new concept of late-onset crime, characterized by
individuals whose antisocial careers initiate at 60 years or older (DeLisi et al., 2018). Moreover, ACEs are positively associated with
the duration of the criminal career and negatively with employment attachment (Humphrey & Van Brunschot, 2018).
Adverse childhood experiences and recidivism
Exposure to adverse childhood experiences, including childhood conflict-related trauma, home, community, and collective
violence, is associated with the recurrence of violent crimes (Dalsklev et al., 2019; Siva et al., 2022). In the reviewed studies, ACEs
and recidivism in general crimes predict 27% (Liu et al., 2021), 30.3% (Craig & Zettler, 2021), 37.8% (Van Duin et al., 2021), 42% (B.
Fox et al., 2021), and 31% for sexual offenses (DeLisi & Beauregard, 2018). One study found no associations between ACEs and
sexual offense recidivism (Kahn et al., 2021). Among specific ACE variables and the risk of recurrence, a significant association has
been observed with conflict-related trauma (Dalsklev et al., 2019), juvenile incarceration, and parental relationships (Schick et al.,
2020).
Experiencias Infantiles Adversas y su asociación con el comportamiento delictivo en Adultos: Una revisión sistemática
96
4. Discussion
In the present research, which aimed to describe research detailing the most relevant findings of Adverse Childhood Experiences
(ACEs) and their incidence in delinquent behaviors in adults, adverse childhood experiences are significantly associated with various
mental health issues, criminal and delinquent behaviors, and, most importantly, recidivism in offenses. Factors predisposing to
criminal behavior, such as social learning theory, suggest that criminal behavior is learned and sustained through the observation
of delinquent behaviors, manifesting as antisocial conduct during early development (Akers, 2017; Felson & Lane, 2009). Not only
does the observation of delinquent behaviors act as a strong predictor, but early childhood experiences, specifically early adversity,
are particularly detrimental when occurring within the family context, such as physical abuse, witnessing domestic violence, or
parental substance abuse (Akers, 2017). Abuse and neglect are considered the most harmful types of adversity and are prevalent
globally (Kessler et al., 2010). This perspective aligns with the results of the current research, where various abuse experiences are
linked to conduct disorders, antisocial personality disorder, and the commission of serious crimes (DeLisi et al., 2019b; B. Fox et al.,
2014). Additionally, it is observed that these specific types of ACEs, such as abuse, are associated with criminal behaviors related
to rape and/or sexual abuse (DeLisi et al., 2019a; Woehrle et al., 2022). Research has concluded that victims of childhood trauma,
abuse, neglect, and maltreatment exhibit more intense criminal behaviors and lead to more serious offenses compared to other
types of adverse childhood experiences (Dierkhising et al., 2013; B. Fox et al., 2014).
Similarly, adverse childhood experiences show a significant correlation with recidivism in criminal behaviors, including serious
offenses, with rates ranging from 27% to 42% (Craig & Zettler, 2021; Dalsklev et al., 2019; DeLisi & Beauregard, 2018; Fox et al.,
2021; Liu et al., 2021; Siva et al., 2022; Van Duin et al., 2021). This relationship can be understood through the accumulation of
adverse childhood experiences, as research suggests that experiencing especially 4 or more ACEs is significantly related to
involvement in the criminal justice system in young and middle adulthood (Testa et al., 2022). Moreover, for each identified
negative event, there is an increased risk of violence, particularly in men, ranging from 45% to 144%, especially when there are a
history of sexual abuse, contributing to criminal and delinquent behaviors in adulthood (Duke et al., 2010; Jespersen et al., 2009;
Reavis et al., 2013).
Thus, adverse childhood experiences become a crucial area of study to understand the origin and persistence of criminal behavior.
Various research suggests early detection mechanisms in adolescents and young people based on childhood trauma, abuse, and
neglect stories. Each experience increases the risk of becoming a serious, violent, and chronic offender in adulthood (Fox et al.,
2015). In this context, mental health professionals can use ACEs scores as a primary detection tool to identify the risk of criminal
behavior before significant harm occurs. Additionally, it is essential to implement public policies that promote personal
development, capabilities, and education, as well as reduce poverty and provide access to various support services.
Despite significant findings, it is crucial to recognize certain limitations in this research. Firstly, most studies rely on self-reported
data, which may lead to response biases and subjectivity. Additionally, most research focuses on specific populations, limiting the
generalization of results to broader contexts. Moreover, the complexity of ACEs requires a multidimensional approach that some
studies may not fully address. Future research should consider these limitations and address potential information gaps for a more
comprehensive understanding.
5. Conclusions:
In conclusion, this research underscores the crucial importance of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) as significant predictors
of criminal behavior and recurrence of serious offenses in adults. The accumulation of ACEs is associated with a substantial increase
in the risk of involvement in the criminal justice system, emphasizing the need for early interventions and preventive policies.
Mental health professionals can use ACEs scores as effective detection tools. However, ongoing attention to methodological
limitations and the diversity of populations is required to enhance the application and understanding of these findings in broader
contexts.
Valarezo- Bravo et al.
97
Acknowledgments: To the Subdirección de Capital Humano – ANID, for funding the national doctoral studies for Valarezo-Bravo,
O; with file number 21230106.
Authors' contribution: V-B.O.F. and V-T.M: Conceptualisation, research, methodology, formal analysis, data cleaning, writing and
preparation of the manuscript. P-R.J.E., R-T.C., P-S.P., R.R., B.D.: Conceptualisation, research, writing and preparation of the
manuscript.
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